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C h a p t e r 14 Writing a Paper Using Research Although the words research paper have been known to produce anxiety worse than that caused by the sound of a dentist’s drill, you should try to relax.Click here for more on this paper.......
Click here to have a similar A+ quality paper done for you by one of our writers within the set deadline at a discounted.. A research paper is similar to the kinds of expository and argumentative essays described in the earlier parts of this book, the difference being the use of documented source material to support, illustrate, or explain your ideas. Research papers still call for thesis statements, logical sequences of paragraphs, welldeveloped supporting evidence, smooth conclusions—or in other words, all the skills you’ve been practicing throughout this book. By citing sources in your essays or reports, you merely show your readers that you have investigated your ideas and found support for them. In addition, using sources affords your readers the opportunity to look into your subject further if they so desire, consulting your references for additional information. The process described in the next few pages should help you write a paper using research that is carefully and effectively documented. This chapter also contains sample documentation forms for a variety of research sources and a sample student essay using MLA style.Click here for more on this paper.......
Click here to have a similar A+ quality paper done for you by one of our writers within the set deadline at a discounted.. FOCUSING YOUR TOPIC In some cases, you will be assigned your topic, and you will be able to begin your research right away. In other cases, however, you may be encouraged to select your own subject, or you may be given a general subject (“health-care reform,” “recycling,” “U.S. immigration policies”) that you must narrow and then focus into a specific, manageable topic. If the topic is your choice, you need to do some preliminary thinking about what interests you; as in any assignment, you should make the essay a learning experience from which both you and your readers will profit. Therefore, you may want to brainstorm for a while on your general subject before you go to the library, asking yourself questions about what you already know and don’t know. Some of...
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Although the words research paperhave been known to produce anxiety worse
than that caused by the sound of a dentist’s drill, you should try to relax. A research paper is similar to the kinds of expository and argumentative essays
described in the earlier parts of this book, the difference being the use of documented source material to support, illustrate, or explain your ideas. Research
papers still call for thesis statements, logical sequences of paragraphs, welldeveloped supporting evidence, smooth conclusions—or in other words, allClick here for more on this paper.......
the skills you’ve been practicing throughout this book. By citing sources in
your essays or reports, you merely show your readers that you have investigated your ideas and found support for them. In addition, using sources affords
your readers the opportunity to look into your subject further if they so desire,
consulting your references for additional information.
The process described in the next few pages should help you write a
paper using research that is carefully and effectively documented. This chapter also contains sample documentation forms for a variety of research
sources and a sample student essay using MLA style.
FOCUSING YOUR TOPIC
In some cases, you will be assigned your topic, and you will be able to begin
your research right away. In other cases, however, you may be encouraged to
select your own subject, or you may be given a general subject (“health-care
reform,” “recycling,” “U.S. immigration policies”) that you must narrow and
then focus into a specific, manageable topic. If the topic is your choice, you
need to do some preliminary thinking about what interests you; as in any assignment, you should make the essay a learning experience from which both
you and your readers will profit. Therefore, you may want to brainstorm for a
while on your general subject before you go to the library, asking yourself
questions about what you already know and don’t know. Some of the most interesting papers are argumentative essays in which writers set about to find
an answer to a controversy or to find support for a solution they suspect
might work. Other papers, sometimes called “research reports,” expose, explain, or summarize a situation or a problem for their audience.
372 PART THREE -SPECIAL ASSIGNMENTS
Throughout this chapter, we will track the research and writing process of
Amy Lawrence, a composition student whose writing assignment called for an
essay presenting her view of a controversy in her major field of study. As a
history major, Amy is particularly interested in the Russian Revolution of
1918, when the Romanov family, the last ruling family of Russia, was assassinated by the Bolsheviks, the Communist revolutionaries led by Lenin. The
long-standing controversy surrounding the assassination of Czar Nicholas II
and his family focused on the question of whether the two youngest Romanov
children, the beautiful Anastasia and the sickly Alexei, escaped execution.
New forensic and historical discoveries concerning this controversy had made
headlines prior to Amy’s assignment, so she chose the Romanov assassination
as her topic. Because she already had some general knowledge of the controversy, Amy was able to think about her topic in terms of some specific research questions: What would research tell her about the possibility of the
Romanov children’s escape? Would the new forensic evidence support the theory of an escape—or would it put such a claim to rest forever? (Amy’s completed essay appears on pages 411–420.)
BEGINNING YOUR LIBRARY RESEARCH
Once you have a general topic (and perhaps have some research questions in
mind), your next step is familiarizing yourself with the school or public library where you may do all or part of your research. Most college libraries
today have both print and electronic resources to offer researchers, as well
as access to the Internet. Your library most likely has an online central information system, which may include a catalog of its holdings, a number of selected databases, gateways to other libraries, and other kinds of resources.
With appropriate computer connections, this system may be accessed from
other places on or off campus, which is handy for those times when you cannot be in the library.
Most libraries also have information (printed or online) that will indicate
the location of important areas, and almost all have reference librarians
who can explain the various kinds of programs and resources available to
you. The smartest step you may take is asking a librarian for help before
you begin searching. Library staff members may be able to save you enormous amounts of research time by pointing you in just the right direction.
Do not be shy about asking the library staff for help at any point during your
research!
Once you are familiar with your library, you may find it useful to consult
one or more of the following research tools.
General Reference Works
If you need a general overview of your subject, or perhaps some background or historical information, you might begin your library research by
consulting an encyclopedia, a collection of biographical entries, or even a
statistical or demographic yearbook. You might use a comprehensive or
CHAPTER 14 -WRITING A PAPER USING RESEARCH 373
specialized dictionary if your search turns up terms that are unfamiliar to
you. These and many other library reference guides (in print and online)
might also help you find a specific focus for your essay if you feel your topic is
still too large or undefined at this point.
Computer Catalogs of Library Holdings/The Card Catalog
In most libraries across the country, card catalogs have been replaced by
computers as the primary guide to a library’s holdings. During this time of transition, however, you may still find libraries that blend computer and card catalog
use, and a few that have not yet installed any computer databases. No two libraries are exactly alike, and technological resources vary from place to place.
As a result, consulting a librarian about the system(s) currently in use at your
school or public library may be essential as you begin your research. Never be
afraid to ask for help!
The card catalogis usually a series of cabinets containing alphabetized
index cards; in some libraries, the card catalog is divided into three parts so
that you may look up information under “subject,” “author,” and “title.” Here is
an example of a card you might find in a subject catalog.
Computer catalogsalso allow you to look for information by subject, author, and title as well as by keyword, by the ISBN, or by the call number. Onscreen prompts will guide you through the process of searching. Unless you
are already familiar with authorities or their works on your topic, you might
begin with the subject catalog. For example, Amy Lawrence began her research on the Romanov assassination by looking in the computer catalog
Nicholas II
947.083
The last Czar:
the life and death of
Nicholas II/Edvard Radzinsky,
New York: Doubleday
C 1992
475 p.: i11.; 24cm
Library of Congress Romanov I. title 1.
07181 ISBN 0-385-46924
Subject Heading
National
Library’s Number
Book Contains
Illustrations
International Standard
Book Number (Publisher’s
information, used when
ordering book)
Other Listings of
This Book in the
Card Catalog
Height of Book
Publisher
Author
Title Call Number
City of Publication
Copyright Date
Total Number of
Book’s Pages
374 PART THREE -SPECIAL ASSIGNMENTS
under the subject heading for Nicholas II, the Russian czar. After typing in her
subject, she discovered that the library had several books on the czar; one
book looked especially promising, so she pulled up the following screen to see
more information.
If you cannot find your topic in the subject catalog, you may have to look
under several headings to find the specific one your library uses. (For example, Amy’s library might have used “Romanov” instead of “Nicholas II” in its
subject catalog.) If you can’t find your subject under the headings that first
come to mind, consult the Library of Congress Subject Headings,a common reference book that will suggest other names for your topic. Once you have a call
number, a library map will help you find the book’s location on the shelves.
Indexes
Indexes list magazines, journals, newspapers, audio and video sources,
books, and collections that contain material you may wish to consult. Most of
these indexes are now available on computer databases; you will probably find
the most current information there because databases are frequently updated. Some printed indexes, in contrast, may be revised and published only
once a year. However, if electronic databases are not accessible, you can always turn to the print versions available at your library. For example, if you
think your topic has been the subject of articles in general-interest magazines,
you might consult The Reader’s Guide to Periodical Literature;for newspaper
articles, you might check The New York Times Indexor the National Newspaper
Record 3 of 5
Author Radzinsky, Edvard.
Title The last Czar: the life and death of Nicholas II
Publisher New York: Anchor Books: Doubleday, 1992
Edition 1st Anchor Books ed.
Descript vi, 475 p., [24] p. of plates : ill., maps ; 24 cm.
Subject Nicholas II, Emperor of Russia, 1868-1918 – Assassination
Nicholas II, Emperor of Russia, 1868-1918 – Family Note Originally published: New York : Doubleday, 1992.
Bibliog. Includes bibliographical references (p. [453]-457) and index.
ISBN 0385469624 : $14.95 ($18.95 Can.)
SUBJECT
LOCATION CALL # STATUS
HRMY Nonfiction 947.083 Radzinsky, E. 1992 CHECKED IN
Nicholas II, Czar of Russia, View Entire Collection Search
CHAPTER 14 -WRITING A PAPER USING RESEARCH 375
Index.Most specialized subjects have their own indexes: the Humanities Index,
the Art Index,the Music Index,the Social Sciences Index,the Business Periodicals Index,the Applied Science and Technology Index,and so on.
CD-ROMs and Databases
Most libraries today offer many electronic sources to help people search
for information.
In previous years, you may have used one or more of the CD-ROMs (compact disks of stored information) in your library, perhaps when you needed to
consult an encyclopedia, such as Encartaor Grolier ’s.Today, most college libraries have converted almost exclusively to online information services that
will lead you to appropriate databases (general and specific) for your subject.
A databaseallows you to use a computer to scan electronic indexes that list
thousands of bibliographic sources, abstracts, and texts.
Libraries across the country subscribe to different information services,
so you must consult your place of research for its particular list. Once you
are familiar with your library’s selected databases, you will find some generalinterest indexes and others that are focused on specialized areas (education,
health, business, law, film and so on); abstracts and even full texts of articles
are sometimes available. Online databases are updated frequently and may
offer you the most current sources for your research. Ask a librarian to help if
you are unfamiliar with a database search.
As you search your electronic sources, remember that you may have to
try a variety of keywords (and their synonyms) to find what you need.
Sometimes your keyword search may turn up too few leads—and sometimes
you may be overwhelmed with too many matches! (For example, when Amy
Lawrence typed in the keyword “Anastasia,” she discovered too many irrelevant entries focusing on Hollywood movies about the princess.) To save time
and effort, you may be able to broaden or narrow your search by typing in
words called Boolean operators*as illustrated below:
AND(Nicholas II AND Anastasia)—narrows your search to those references containing both terms
OR(Nicholas II OR Anastasia)—broadens search to find items containing
either term
NOT(Anastasia NOT movie)—excludes items irrelevant to your search
NEAR(Nicholas II NEAR assassination)—finds references in which the
terms occur within a set number of words. (This option is not always
available.)
Not all databases respond to Boolean operators, however, so it’s always best
to consult the searching advice offered by your particular information system.
* Named for the ninteenth-century British mathematician and logician George Boole.
376 PART THREE -SPECIAL ASSIGNMENTS
Once you have found useful information, libraries today usually have printers available to copy the on-screen data you wish to keep; you may have to pay
a small fee for this copying, so it’s a good idea to take some cash along, preferably in correct change. (Sometimes users can avoid this expense by e-mailing
data to themselves.)
And once again, the very best advice bears repeating: never hesitate to
ask your library staff for help.
The Internet
You may have access to the Internet through your library, through your
school network, or through a personal account with a service provider of your
choice. The Internet can offer great research opportunities, but in many
cases, it may only supplement—not replace—the work you will need to do in
the library.
The most effective approach to discovering useful material on the Internet
may be through use of “search engines” that produce a list of potential electronic documents or Web sites in response to your search. Some search
engines (such as Yahoo!) offer a “subject directory,” which organizes an
enormous amount of information on the Net into broad categories, such as
arts, education, health, humanities, or science. To research a topic, you move
through general categories to more specific subcategories until you find
the information you need (arts→literature→classics→Greek classics→The
Iliad). You might wish to consult a subject directory early in your search when
you are looking for general information on your topic.
Perhaps more useful in an advanced search are those search engines that
operate in a more focused way: you type in your keyword(s); the search engine explores its database for word or phrase matches; it then presents you
with a list of potential sources, which include the Internet addresses (called
URLs—“uniform resource locators”). You may access the sources that seem
most promising (often those that appear first on the list), and you may also
connect to other material by clicking on any highlighted words (hypertext
links) appearing within the text of a particular document. At this time, several
of the most popular search engines are Google, AltaVista, HotBot, Excite, Go
( InfoSeek), Yahoo! and Lycos; some systems, such as MetaCrawler, search
multiple engines at once.
Most search engines have their own searching tips; to improve your
chances for a successful search, it’s well worth the time to read the advice.
For example, many search engines allow use of some or all of the Boolean operators (see page 375) to narrow or broaden your search. Some allow the use
of plus and minus signs to show connected terms or unwanted matches:
Anastasia+Nicholas II (find sources containing both terms)
Anastasia−movie (find sources about Anastasia but exclude those that
include the word “movie”)
CHAPTER 14 -WRITING A PAPER USING RESEARCH 377
Some programs request quotation marks or parentheses around phrases;
some are case sensitive (capitalize proper nouns or not?); some use truncation to find various forms of a word (myth* will return mythologyand mythical). Other programs, such as Ask Jeeves, allow researchers to ask questions
in natural language (“Who was Marie Romanov?”). As technology continues to
change and improve, searching will no doubt become easier, so always take a
moment to look at each search engine’s current directions.
Here is one more hint for searching the Web: sometimes you can guess the
URL you need. Simply fill in the name of a specific company, college, agency,
or organization. Do not skip spaces between words (usnews.com).
Businesses: www.name of company.com
Universities: www.name of college.edu
Government agencies: www.name of agency.gov
Organizations: www.name of organization.org
You may also consult specialized directories to discover the addresses you need.
Once you find a useful document or site, you may print a copy or add the
reference to your “bookmark” or “favorites” list, if you are using your own
computer. Whether at the library or at home, always keep a list of your important sites, their addresses, and the date you accessed them. You may need this
information for an easy return to a particular document and also for your
working bibliography.
There are many other ways to use the Internet for research and for trading
ideas with others. To explore the possibilities in more detail than may be presented here, invest in a current book on the Internet or go to one of the many
sites offering research advice.
Words of Caution for Internet Users:
Be Afraid, Be Very Afraid. . . .
The Internet offers researchers a wealth of information incredibly fast.
However, the Internet poses problems, too. It may offer a great deal of information on your essay topic—but it may not offer the bestinformation, which
might be found in a classic text on your library shelf. Background information
or historical prospective may not be available; Web site information may be
out of date. Moreover, simply finding the specific information you need can be
frustrating and time-consuming, especially if your keywords and links don’t
lead in useful directions. The information superhighway is congested with
scores of irrelevant distractions, so beware the wild Web chase.
There is, however, another much more serious problem: not all material
found on the Internet is accurate or reliable. When an article is printed in a
respected journal, for example, readers have assurances that editors have reviewed the information, writers have checked their facts, and authorities have
been quoted correctly. However, Web sites may be created by anyone on any
subject, from gene splicing to Elvis sightings, without any sort of editorial
378 PART THREE -SPECIAL ASSIGNMENTS
review. Opinions—wise or crackpot—may be presented as facts; rumors may
be presented as reality. Because there is no “quality control” of Web sites,
writers of research papers must evaluate their sources extremely carefully to
avoid gathering unreliable information. Always ask these questions of each
source:
• What is the purpose of this Web site? (To inform, persuade, market a
product or service, share an interest, entertain?) To whom is this site
primarily directed, and why?
• Who is the sponsor, author, or creator of the site? (A business, an educational institution, a non-profit organization, a government agency, a
news bureau, an individual?) Is the sponsor or author known and respected in the particular content area?
• Does the sponsor or author reveal a clear bias or strong opinion? Does
such a slant undercut the usefulness of the information?
• When was this site produced? When was it last updated or revised? If
links exist, are they still viable? Up-to-date?
• Is the information accurate? How might the material be cross-checked
and verified?
If you have doubts about the accuracy of any material you discover on the Internet, find another authoritative source to validate the information or omit it
from your essay. Following the guidelines on pages 381–383 will help you evaluate allyour potential research sources.
Special Collections
Your library may contain special collections that will help you research
your subject. Some libraries, for example, have extensive collections of government documents or educational materials or newspapers from foreign
cities. Other libraries may have invested in manuscripts from famous authors
or in a series of works on a particular subject, such as your state’s history,
a Vietnam War collection, or studies on human rights in post-World War II
Latin America. Remember, too, that some libraries contain collections of early
films, rare recordings, or unique photographs. Consult your librarian or the information sources describing your library’s special holdings.
PREPARING A WORKING BIBLIOGRAPHYClick here for more on this paper.......
As you search for information about your essay topic, keep a list of sources
that you may want to use in your essay. This list, called a working bibliography,
will grow as you discover potential sources, and it may shrink if you delete references that aren’t useful. Ultimately, this working bibliography will become
the list of references presented at the end of your essay.
There are several ways to record your sources. Some students prefer to
make an index card for each title; others compile a list in a research notebook;
CHAPTER 14 -WRITING A PAPER USING RESEARCH 379
still others prefer to create a computer file or folder of printouts. As you add
sources to your working bibliography, note the following information, as
appropriate.
Book
1.Author’s or editor’s full name
2.Complete title, including subtitle if one exists
3.Edition number
4.Volume number and the total number of volumes if the book is part of
a series
5.Publisher
6.City of publication
7.Date of publication
8.Library call number or location of source
9.Chapter title or page numbers of the information you need
Article in a Journal, Magazine, or Newspaper
1.Author’s full name (if given)
2.Title of the article
3.Title of the journal, magazine, or newspaper
4.Volume and issue number of the journal or magazine
5.Date of publication
6.Page numbers of the article (section and page numbers for newspaper)
Electronic Sources
1.Author’s full name or name of sponsoring organization
2.Title of document
3.Title of the database, Web site, CD-ROM, etc.
4.Editor’s name and volume information
5.Date of electronic publication or latest update
6.Date that you accessed the source
7.The network address (URL)
8.Previous print publication information, if available
Here are three sample index cards from Amy Lawrence’s working bibliography:
380 PART THREE -SPECIAL ASSIGNMENTS
Book
Article in Magazine
Electronic Source
Radzinsky, Edvard; translated by Marian Schwartz
The Last Czar: The Life and Death of Nicholas II
Doubleday Publishers, 1992
New York, New York
pp. 8–10, 315–434 Translated by
call number: AN947.083 Marian Schwartz
CSU Library, East Wing
Elliot, Dorinda
“The Legacy of the Last Czar”
Newsweek, pp. 60–61
Sept. 21, 1992
Varoli, John
“Nemtsov: Bury Czar in St. Petersburg July 17”
The St. Petersburg Times
St. Petersburg, Russia
Feb. 9–15, 1998
<http://www.spb.ru/times/336–337/nemtsov.html>
Internet (date of access: 2/26/01)
CHAPTER 14 -WRITING A PAPER USING RESEARCH 381
CHOOSING AND EVALUATING YOUR SOURCES
After you have found a number of promising sources, take a closer look at them.
The strength and credibility of your research paper will depend directly on the
strength and credibility of your sources. In short, a research paper built on
shaky, unreliable sources will not convince a thoughtful reader. Even one suspect piece of evidence may lead your reader to wonder about the validity of
other parts of your essay
To help you choose your sources, ask yourself the following questions as
you try to decide which facts, figures, and testimonies will best support or illustrate your ideas.
What do I know about the author?Does this person have any expertise
or particular knowledge about the subject matter? If the author of an article
about nuclear fusion is a physics professor at a respected university, her
views will be more informed than those of a writer who never took a physics
course. Although books and scholarly journals generally cite their author’s
qualifications, the credentials of journalists and magazine writers may be
harder to evaluate. Internet sources, as mentioned earlier, may be highly suspect. In cases in which the background of a writer is unknown, you might examine the writer’s use of his or her own sources. Can sources for specific data
or opinions be checked or verified? In addition, the objectivity of the author
must be considered: some authors are clearly biased and may even stand to
gain economically or politically from taking a particular point of view. Click here for more on this paper.......
president of a tobacco company, for instance, might insist that secondary
smoke from the cigarettes of others will not harm nonsmokers, but does he or
she have an objective opinion? Try to present evidence from those authors
whose views will sway your readers.
What do I know about the publisher?Who published your sources? Major,
well-known publishing houses can be one indication of a book’s credibility. ( If
you are unfamiliar with a particular publisher, consult a librarian or professor
in that field). Be aware that there are many publishers who only publish books
supporting a specific viewpoint; similarly, many organizations support Web
sites to further their causes. The bias in such sources may limit their usefulness to your research.
For periodicals, consider the nature of the journal, magazine, or newspaper. Who is its intended audience? A highly technical paper on sickle cell
anemia, for example, might be weakened by citing a very general discussion of
the disease from Health Di gest;an article from theJournal of the American
Medical Association,however, might be valuable. Is it a publication known to
be fairly objective (The New York Times) or does it have a particular cause to
support (The National Sierra Club Bulletin)?Looking at the masthead of a journal or other publication will often tell you whether articles are subjected to
stringent review before acceptance for publication. In general, articles published in “open” or nonselective publications should be examined closely for
382 PART THREE -SPECIAL ASSIGNMENTS
credibility. In a recent case, the newsletter for MENSA—a well-known international society for individuals who have documented IQs in the top 2 percent of
the population—created a furor when an article appeared recommending the
euthanasia of the mentally and physically disabled, the homeless, and other
so-called “nonproductive” members of society. The newsletter editor’s explanation was that all articles submitted for publication are generally accepted.
Is my research reasonably balanced? Your treatment of your subject—
especially if it is a controversial one—should show your readers that you investigated all sides of the issue before reaching a conclusion. If your sources
are drawn only from authorities well known for voicing one position, your
readers may be skeptical about the quality of your research. For instance, if in
a paper arguing against a new gun-control measure, you cite only the opinions
voiced by the officers of the National Rifle Association, you may antagonize
the reader who wants a thorough analysis of all sides of the question. Do use
sources that support your position, but don’t overload your argument with
obviously biased sources.
Are my sources reporting valid research?Is your source the original researcher or is he or she reporting someone else’s study?* If the information is
being reported secondhand, has your source been accurate and clear? Is the
original source named or referenced in some way so that the information
could be checked?
A thorough researcher might note the names of authorities frequently
cited by other writers or researchers and try to obtain the original works by
those authorities. This tip was useful for Amy Lawrence as she found the researcher Robert K. Massie mentioned in a number of magazine articles. Once
she obtained a copy of his often-quoted book, she had additional information
to consider for her paper.Click here for more on this paper.......
Look too at the way information in your source was obtained in the first
place. Did the original researchers themselves draw the logical conclusions
from their evidence? Did they run their study or project in a fair, impartial
way? For example, a survey of people whose names were obtained from the
rolls of the Democratic party will hardly constitute a representative sampling
of voters’ opinions on an upcoming election.
Moreover, be especially careful with statistics because they can be manipulated quite easily to give a distorted picture. A recent survey, for instance,
asked a large sample of people to rate a number of American cities based on
questions dealing with quality of life. Pittsburgh—a lovely city to be sure—
came out the winner, but only if one agrees that all the questions should be
weighted equally; that is, the figures gave Pittsburgh the highest score only
if one rates “weather” as equally important as “educational opportunities,”
* Interviews, surveys, studies, and experiments conducted firsthand are referred to as primary
sources;reports and studies written by someone other than the original researcher are called
secondary sources.
CHAPTER 14 -WRITING A PAPER USING RESEARCH 383
“number of crimes,” “cultural opportunities,” and other factors. In short, always evaluate the quality of your sources’ research and the validity of their
conclusions before you decide to incorporate their findings into your own
paper. (And don’t forget Mark Twain’s reference to “lies, damned lies, and
statistics.”)
Are my sources still current?Although some famous experiments or
studies have withstood the years, many controversial topics demand research
as current as possible. What was written two years or or even two weeks ago
may have been disproved or surpassed since, especially in our rapidly changing political world and ever-expanding fields of technology. A paper on the status of the U.S. space program, for example, demands recent sources, and
research on personal computer use in the United States would be severely
weakened by the use of a text published as recently as 1998 for “current”
statistics.
If they’re appropriate, journals and other periodicals may contain more upto-date reports than books printed several years ago; library database
searches can often provide the most current information (Amy Lawrence, for
example, could have read about the latest findings of the Russian special commission during the week they were officially announced.). Although readers
usually appreciate hearing the most recent word on the topic under examination, you certainly shouldn’t ignore a “classic” study on your subject, especially if it is the one against which all the other studies are measured. A
student researching the life of Abraham Lincoln, for instance, might find Carl
Sandburg’s multivolume biography of over 60 years ago as valuable as more recent works. (Remember, too, that even though Web sites can be continually
revised, they are sometimes neglected; always check to see if a “last updated”
time has been posted or if the material contains current dates or references.)
PREPARING AN ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY
While you are gathering and assessing your sources, you may be asked to compile an annotated bibliography—a description of each important source that
includes the basic bibliographic facts as well as a brief summary of each
entry’s content. After reading multiple articles or books on your subject over
a period of days or even weeks, you may discover that the information you’ve
found has begun to blur together in your head. Annotating each of your bibliographies will help you remember the specific data in each source so that you
can locate it later in the planning and drafting stages of your writing process.
For more advice to help you think critically about your sources, see
Chapter 5.
384 PART THREE -SPECIAL ASSIGNMENTS
Here is a sample taken from Amy Lawrence’s annotated bibliography:
Elliott, Dorinda. “The Legacy of the Last Czar.” Newsweek 21 Sept. 1992:
60–61.
Elliot offers the results of early forensic analysis of the Romanov grave
site and a brief description of the events surrounding the executions. The
article quotes forensic experts and historians and includes the views of
Russian citizens on the significance of finding and identifying the remains
of the Romanov family.
Compiling an annotated bibliography will also give you a clear sense of
how complete and balanced your sources are in support of your ideas, perhaps revealing gaps in your evidence that need to be filled with additional
research data. Later, when your essay is finished, your annotated bibliography
might provide a useful reference for any of your readers who are interested in
exploring your subject in more depth.
TAKING NOTES
As you evaluate and select those sources that are both reliable and useful, you
will begin taking notes on their information. Most researches use one or more
of the following three methods of note-taking.
1.Some students prefer to make their notes on index cards rather than on
notebook paper because a stack of cards may be added to, subtracted from,
or shuffled around more easily when it’s time to plan the essay. (Hint 1: If you
have used bibliography cards, take your notes on cards of different sizes or
colors to avoid any confusion; write on only one side of each card so that all
your information will be in sight when you draft your essay.)
2.Other students rely on photocopies or printouts of sources, highlighting or underlining important details. (Hint 2: Copy the title page and other
front matter so that you will have complete bibliographic information clipped
to your pages.)
3.Students with personal computers may prefer to store their notes in
computer files because of the easy transfer of quoted material from file to
essay draft. (Hint 3: Always make a hard copy of your notes and back up your
files frequently in case of a crash!) You will probably find yourself taking notes
by hand on those occasions when you are without your computer (library,
classroom, interview, public speech, etc.), so carry index cards with you and
transcribe your notes into your files later.
Whichever note-taking method you choose, always remember to record
bibliographic information and the specific page numbers (in printed sources)
or paragraph numbers (in some electronic sources) from which your material
is taken. Your notes may be one of the following kinds:
CHAPTER 14 -WRITING A PAPER USING RESEARCH 385
1.Direct quotations.When you lift material word for word,* you must always use quotation marks and note the precise page number of the quotation,
if given. If the quoted material runs from one printed page onto another,
use some sort of signal to yourself, such as a slash bar (child/abuse) or arrow
(→p. 162) at the break so if you use only part of the quoted material in your
paper, you will know on which page it appeared. If the quoted material contains odd, archaic, or incorrect spelling, punctuation marks, or grammar, insert the word [sic] in brackets next to the item in question; [sic] means “this isClick here for more on this paper.......
the way I found it in the original text,” and such a symbol will remind you later
that you did not miscopy the quotation. Otherwise, always double-check to
make sure you did copy the material accurately and completely to avoid having
to come back to the source as you prepare your essay. If the material you want
to quote is lengthy, you will find it easier—though not cheaper—to photocopy
(or print out) the material rather than transcribe it.
2.Paraphrase.You paraphrase when you put into your own words what
someone else has written or said. Please note: paraphrased ideas are borrowed
ideas, not your original thoughts, and, consequently, they must be attributed to
their owner just as direct quotations are.
To remind yourself that certain information in your notes is paraphrased,
always introduce it with some sort of notation, such as a handwrittenPor a
typed P//. Quotation marks will always tell you what you borrowed directly,
but sometimes when writers take notes one week and write their first draft a
week or two later, they cannot remember if a note was paraphrased or if it was
original thinking. Writers occasionally plagiarize unintentionally because
they believe only direct quotations and statistics must be attributed to their
proper sources, so make your notes as clear as possible (for more information
on avoiding plagiarism, see pages 389–392).
3.Summary.You may wish to condense a piece of writing so you may
offer it as support for your own ideas. Using your own words, you should present in shorter form the writer’s thesis and supporting ideas. You may find it
helpful to include a few direct quotations in your summary to retain the flavor
of the original work. Of course, you will tell your readers what you are summarizing and by whom it was written. Remember to make a note (sum:) to indicate summarized, rather than original, material. (For more information on
writing a summary, see also pages 182–184.)
4.Your own ideas. Your notes may also contain your personal comments
(judgments, flashes of brilliance, notions of how to use something you’ve just
read, notes to yourself about connections between sources, questions, and so
forth) that will aid you in the writing of your paper. In handwritten notes, you
might jot these down in a different-colored pen or put them in brackets that
* All tables, graphs, and charts that you copy must also be directly attributed to their sources,
though you do not enclose graphics in quotation marks.Click here for more on this paper.......
386 PART THREE -SPECIAL ASSIGNMENTS
you’ve initialed, so that you will recognize them later as your own responses
when your note cards are cold.
Distinguishing Paraphrase from Summary
Because novice writers sometimes have a hard time understanding the
difference between paraphrase and summary, here is an explanation and a
sample of each. The original paragraph that appears here was taken from
a magazine article describing an important 1984 study still frequently cited.
Another successful approach to the prevention of criminality has been to target very young children in a school setting before problems arise. The Perry Preschool Program, started 22 years ago in a low socioeconomic area of Ypsilanti,
Michigan, has offered some of the most solid evidence to date that early intervention through a high-quality preschool program can significantly alter a child’s life.
A study released this fall tells what happened to 123 disadvantaged children from
preschool age to present. The detention and arrest rates for the 58 children who
had attended the preschool program was 31 percent, compared to 51 percent for
the 65 who did not. Similarly, those in the preschool program were more likely to
have graduated from high school, have enrolled in postsecondary education programs and be employed, and less likely to have become pregnant as teenagers.
—from “Arresting Delinquency,”
Dan Hurley, Psychology Today,
March 1985, page 66
Paraphrase
A paraphraseputs the information in the researcher’s own words, but it
does follow the order of the original text, and it does include the important
details.
Quality preschooling for high-risk children may help stop crime before it starts.
A 1984 study from the Perry Preschool Program located in a poor area of Ypsilanti, Michigan, shows that of 123 socially and economically disadvantaged children, the 58 who attended preschool had an arrest rate of 31 percent compared
to 51 percent for those 65 who did not attend. The adults with preschool experience had also graduated from high school in larger numbers; in addition, more of
them had attended postsecondary education programs, were employed, and had
avoided teenage pregnancy (Hurley 66).
Summary
A summary is generally much shorter than the original; the researcher
picks out the key ideas but often omits many of the supporting details.
A 1984 study from the Perry Preschool Program in Michigan suggests that disadvantaged children who attend preschool are less likely to be arrested as adults.
They chose more education, had better employment records, and avoided
teenage pregnancy more often than those without preschool (Hurley 66).
CHAPTER 14 -WRITING A PAPER USING RESEARCH 387
INCORPORATING YOUR SOURCE MATERIAL
Be aware that a research paper is not a massive collection of quotations and
paraphrased or summarized ideas glued together with a few transitional
phrases. It is, instead, an essay in which you offer yourthesis and ideas based
on and supported by your research. Consequently, you will need to incorporate and blend in your reference material in a variety of smooth, persuasive
ways. Here are some suggestions:Click here for more on this paper.......
Use your sources in a clear, logical way.Make certain that you understand your source material well enough to use it in support of your own
thoughts. Once you have selected the best references to use, be as convincing
as possible. Ask yourself if you’re using enough evidence and if the information
you’re offering really does clearly support your point. As in any essay, you need
to avoid oversimplification, hasty generalizations, non sequiturs, and other
problems in logic (for a review of common logical fallacies, see pages 297–300).
Resist the temptation to add quotations, facts, or statistics that are interesting
but not really relevant to your paper.
Don’t overuse direct quotations.It’s best to use a direct quotation only
when it expresses a point in a far more impressive, emphatic, or concise
way than you could say it yourself. Suppose, for instance, you were analyzing
the films of a particular director and wanted to include a sample of critical
reviews.
As one movie critic wrote, “This film is really terrible, and people
should ignore it” (Dennison 14).Click here for more on this paper.......
The preceding direct quotation above isn’t remarkable and could be easily
paraphrased. However, you might be tempted to quote the following line to
show your readers an emphatically negative review of this movie.
As one movie critic wrote, “This film’s plot is so idiotic it’s clearly intended for people who move their lips not only when they read but also
when they watch TV” (Dennison 14).Click here for more on this paper.......
When you do decide to use direct quotations, don’t merely drop them
in your prose as if they had fallen from a tall building onto your page.
REMEMBER:
Both paraphrased and summarized ideas must be attributed to
their sources, even if you do not reproduce exact words or figures.
388 PART THREE -SPECIAL ASSIGNMENTS
Instead, lead into them smoothly so that they obviously support or clarify
what you are saying.
Dropped in Scientists have been studying the ill effects of nitrites on test
animals since 1961. “Nitrites produced malignant tumors in 62
percent of the test animals within six months” (Smith 109).
Better Scientists have been studying the ill effects of nitrites on test
animals since 1961. According to Dr. William Smith, head of
the Farrell Institute of Research, who conducted the largest experiment thus far, “Nitrites produced malignant tumors in 62
percent of the test animals within six months” (109).
Vary your sentence pattern when you present your quotations.Here
are some sample phrases for quotations:
In her introduction to The Great Gatsby, Professor Wilma Smith points
out that Fitzgerald “wrote about himself and produced a narcissistic masterpiece” (5).
Wilma Smith, author of Impact, summarized the situation this way:
“Eighty-eight percent of the sales force threaten a walkout” (21).
“Only the President controls the black box,” according to the White House
Press Secretary Wilma Smith.
As drama critic Wilma Smith observed last year in The Saturday Review,
the play was “a rousing failure” (212).
Perhaps the well-known poet Wilma Smith expressed the idea best when
she wrote, “Love is a spider waiting to entangle its victims” (14).
“Employment figures are down 3 percent from last year,” claimed Senator
Wilma Smith, who leads opposition to the tax cut (32).
In other words, don’t simply repeat “Wilma Smith said,” “John Jones said,”
“Mary Brown said.”
Punctuate your quotations correctly.The proper punctuation will help
your reader understand who said what. For information on the appropriate uses
of quotation marks surrounding direct quotations, see pages 509–510 in Part
Four. If you are incorporating a long quoted passage into your essay, one that
appears as more than four typed lines in your manuscript, you should present
it in block form without quotation marks, as described on page 395. To omit
words in a quoted passage, use ellipsis marks, explained on pages 516–517.
Make certain your support is in the paper, not still in your head or
back in the original source.Sometimes when you’ve read a number of persuasive facts in an article or a book, it’s easy to forget that your reader
doesn’t know them as you do now. For instance, the writer of the following
paragraph isn’t as persuasive as she might be because she hides the support
CHAPTER 14 -WRITING A PAPER USING RESEARCH 389
for her controversial point in the reference to the article, forgetting that the
reader needs to know what the article actually said:
An organ transplant from one human to another is becoming an everyday occurrence, an operation that is generally applauded by everyone as a
life-saving effort. But people are overlooking many of the serious problems that come with the increase in transplant surgery. A study shows
that in Asia there may be a risk of traffic in organs on the Black Market.
Figures recorded recently are very disturbing ( Wood 35).
For the reader to be persuaded, he or she needs to know what the writer
learned from the article: What study? What figures and what exactly do they
show? Who has recorded these? Is the source reliable? Instead of offering the
necessary support in the essay, the writer merely points to the article as
proof. Few readers will take the time to look up the article to find the information they need to understand or believe your point. Therefore, when you use
source material, always be sure that you have remembered to put your support on the page, in the essay itself,for the reader to see. Don’t let the essence
of your point remain hidden, especially when the claim is controversial.
Don’t let reference material dominate your essay.Remember that your
reader is interested in yourthesis and yourconclusions, not just in a string of
references. Use your researched material wisely whenever your statements
need clarification, support, or amplification. But don’t use quotations, paraphrased, or summarized material at every turn, just to show that you’ve done
your homework.
AVOIDING PLAGIARISM
Unfortunately, most discussions of research must include a brief word about
plagiarism. Novice writers often unintentionally plagiarize, as noted before,
because they fail to recognize the necessity of attributing paraphrased, summarized, and borrowed ideas to their original owners. And indeed it is sometimes difficult after days of research to know exactly what one has read
repeatedly and what one originally thought. Also, there’s frequently a thin
line between general or common knowledge (“Henry Ford was the father of
the automobile industry in America”) that does not have to be documented
and those ideas and statements that do (“USX reported an operating loss of
four million in its last quarter”). As a rule of thumb, ask yourself whether the
majority of your readers would recognize the fact or opinion you’re expressing
or if it’s repeatedly found in commonly used sources; if so, you may not need
to document it. For example, most people would acknowledge that the Wall
Street crash of 1929 ushered in the Great Depression of the 1930s, but the
exact number of bank foreclosures in 1933 is not common knowledge and,
therefore, needs documenting. Similarly, a well-known quotation from the Bible
or Mother Goose or even the Declaration of Independence might pass without
390 PART THREE -SPECIAL ASSIGNMENTS
documentation, but a line from the vice-president’s latest speech needs a reference to its source. Remember, too, that much of the material on the Internet is
copyrighted. When in doubt, the best choice is to document anything that you
feel may be in question.
To help you understand the difference between plagiarism and proper
documentation, here is an original passage and both incorrect and correct
ways to use it in a paper of your own:
Original It is a familiar nightmare: a person suffers a heart attack, and as
the ambulance fights heavy traffic, the patient dies. In fact,
350,000 American heart-attack victims each year die without
ever reaching a hospital. The killer in many cases is ventricular
fibrillation, uncoordinated contraction of the heart muscle. Last
week a team of Dutch physicians reported in The New England
Journal of Medicinethat these early deaths can often be prevented by administration of a common heart drug called lidocaine, injected into the patient’s shoulder muscle by ambulance
paramedics as soon as they arrive on the scene.
—from “First Aid for Heart Attacks,”
Newsweek, November 11, 1985,
page 88
Plagiarized It is a common nightmare: as the ambulance sits in heavy traffic, a person with a heart attack dies, often a victim of ventricular fibrillation, uncoordinated contraction of the heart muscle.
Today, however, these early deaths can often be prevented by
an injection into the patient’s shoulder of a common heart drug
called lidocaine, which may be administered by paramedics on
the scene.
This writer has changed some of the words and sentences, but the passage
has obviously been borrowed and must be attributed to its source.
Also plagiarized According to Newsweek, 350,000 American heart attack
victims die before reaching help in hospitals (“First Aid
for Heart Attacks” 88). However, a common heart drug
called lidocaine, which may be injected into the patient by
paramedics on the scene of the attack, may save many victims who die en route to doctors and sophisticated lifesaving equipment.Click here for more on this paper.......
This writer did attribute the statistic to its source, but the remainder of the
paragraph is still borrowed and must be documented.
Properly documented Ambulance paramedics can, and often do, play a vital
life-saving role today. They are frequently the first
CHAPTER 14 -WRITING A PAPER USING RESEARCH 391
medical assistance available, especially to those patients or accident victims far away from hospitals.
Moreover, according to a Newsweek report, paramedics are now being trained to administer powerful
drugs to help the sick survive until they reach doctors and medical equipment. For instance, paramedics can inject the common heart drug lidocaine
into heart attack victims on the scene, an act that
may save many of the 350,000 Americans who die of
heart attacks before ever reaching a hospital (“First
Aid for Heart Attacks” 88).
This writer used the properly documented information to support her own
point about paramedics and has not tried to pass off any of the article as
her own.
Although plagiarism is often unintentional, it’s your job to be as honest
and careful as possible. If you’re in doubt about your use of a particular idea,
consult your instructor for a second opinion.
Here’s a suggestion that might help you avoid plagiarizing by accident.
When you are drafting your essay and come to a spot in which you want to
incorporate the ideas of someone else, think of the borrowed material as if
it were in a window.* Always frame the window at the top with some sort of
introduction that identifies the author (or source) and frame the window on
the bottom with a reference to the location of the material:
* I am indebted to Professor John Clark Pratt of Colorado State University for this useful suggestion. Professor Pratt is the author of Writing from Scratch: The Essay(1987) published by
Hamilton Press, and the editor of the Writing from Scratchseries.
(According to art critic Jane Doe,)
Quotation
or
Paraphrase
or
Summary
(Media 42)
Introductory phrase
identifies author or source
392 PART THREE -SPECIAL ASSIGNMENTS
A sample might look like this:Click here for more on this paper.......
In a later draft, you’ll probably want to vary your style so that all your borrowed
material doesn’t appear in exactly the same “window” format (see page 388 for
suggestions). But until you acquire the habit of always documenting your
sources, you might try using the “window” technique in your early drafts.
PRACTICING WHAT YOU’VE LEARNED
As Amy Lawrence researched the Romanov execution, she found the following
information about one of the earlier Romanov czars. To practice some of the
skills you’ve learned so far, read the following passage on Alexander II of Russia (1855–1881) and do the tasks that are listed after it.
Alexander’s greatest single achievement was his emancipation of some forty million Russian serfs, a deed which won him the title of “Tsar Liberator.” To visit a
rural Russian community in the earlier nineteenth century was like stepping
back into the Middle Ages. Nine-tenths of the land was held by something less
than one hundred thousand noble families. The serfs, attached to the soil, could
be sold with the estates to new landlords, conscripted into the nobleman’s household to work as domestic servants, or even sent to the factories in the towns for
their master’s profit. Though some nobles exercised their authority in a kindly
and paternal fashion, others overworked their serfs, flogged them cruelly for
slight faults, and interfered insolently in their private affairs and family relations.
A serf could not marry without his master’s consent, could not leave the estate
without permission, and might be pursued, brought back, and punished if he
sought to escape. He lived at the mercy of his master’s caprice.
1.The book from which the preceding passage was taken contains the following information. Select the appropriate information and prepare a
working bibliography card.
A Survey of European Civilization Part Two, Since 1660
Third Edition
Houghton Mifflin Company, Publishers
Boston
✓
As humorist Mike McGrady once said of housekeeping, “Any
job that requires six hours to do and can be undone in six minutes
by one small child carrying a plate of crackers and a Monopoly
set—this is not a job that will long capture my interest” (13).
CHAPTER 14 -WRITING A PAPER USING RESEARCH 393
First edition, 1936
853.21
1,012 pages
Authors:Click here for more on this paper.......
Wallace K. Ferguson, The University of Western Ontario
Geoffrey Brun, Formerly Visiting Professor of History, Cornell
University
Indexes: general, list of maps
Picture Acknowledgments, xxvii
copyright 1962
page 716
44 chapters
2.Paraphrase the first four sentences of the passage.
3.Summarize the passage, but do not quote from it.
4.Select an important idea from the passage to quote directly and lead
into the quotation with a smooth acknowledgment of its source.
5.Select an idea or a quotation from the passage and use it as support
for a point of your own, being careful not to plagiarize the borrowed
material.
ASSIGNMENT
1.In your school or local library, look up a newspaper* from any city or state
and find the issue published on the day of your birth. Prepare a bibliography
card for the issue you chose. Then summarize the most important or “lead”
article on the front page. (Don’t forget to acknowledge the source of your
summary.)
2.To practice searching for and choosing source material, find three recent
works on your essay topic available in your library. If you don’t have an essay
topic yet, pick a subject that interests you, one that is likely to appear in both
print and electronic sources (Baseball Hall of Fame, stamp collecting, the Titanic disaster, king cobras, etc.). If possible, try to find three different kinds of
sources, such as a book, a journal article, and a Web site. After you have
recorded bibliographic information for each source, locate and evaluate the
works. Does each of these sources provide relevant, reliable information? In a
few sentences explain why you believe each one would or would not be an appropriate source for your research essay.
✰
* If the newspaper is not available, you might substitute a weekly news magazine, such as Time
or Newsweek.
394 PART THREE -SPECIAL ASSIGNMENTS
CHOOSING THE DOCUMENTATION STYLE
FOR YOUR ESSAYClick here for more on this paper.......
Once you begin to write your paper incorporating your source material, you need
to know how to show your readers where your material came from. You may have
already learned a documentation system in a previous writing class, but because
today’s researchers and scholars use a number of different documentation
styles, it’s important that you know which style is appropriate for your current
essay. In some cases, your instructors (or the audience for whom you are writing)
will designate a particular style; at other times, the choice will be yours.
In this chapter, we will look at two widely used systems—MLA style and APA
style—and also review the use of the traditional footnote/bibliography format.
MLA Style
Most instructors in the humanities assign the documentation form prescribed by the Modern Language Association of America (MLA). Since 1984,
the MLA has recommended a form of documentation that no longer uses traditional footnotes or endnotes to show references.* The current form calls for
parenthetical documentation,most often consisting of the author’s last name
and the appropriate page number(s) in parentheses immediately following
the source material in your paper. At the end of your discussion, readers may
find complete bibliographic information for each source on a “Works Cited”
page, a list of all the sources in your essay.
MLA Citations in Your Essay
Here are some guidelines for using the MLA parenthetical reference form
within your paper.
1.If you use a source by one author, place the author’s name and page
number right after the quoted, paraphrased, or summarized material. Note
that the parentheses go beforethe end punctuation, and there is no punctuation between the author’s name and the page number.
Example Although pop art often resembles the comic strip, it owes a debt to
such painters as Magritte, Matisse, and de Kooning (Rose 184).
2.If you use a source by one author and give credit to that author by
name in your paper, you need only give the page number in the parentheses.
Example According to art critic Barbara Rose, pop art owes a large debt to
such painters as Magritte, Matisse, and de Kooning (184).
*If you wish a more detailed description of the current MLA form, ask your local bookstore
or library for the MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers,5th ed. (New York: MLA,
1999) and also the MLA Style Manual and Guide to Scholarly Publishing, 2nd ed. (New York:
MLA, 1998). The most up-to-date documentation forms may be found on the MLA Web site
<http://www.MLA.org>.
CHAPTER 14 -WRITING A PAPER USING RESEARCH 395
3.If you are directly quoting material of more than four typed lines, indent the material one inch (ten spaces) from the left margin, double-space,
and do not use quotation marks. Do not change the right margin. Note that in
this case, the parentheses appear afterthe punctuation that ends the quoted
material.Click here for more on this paper.......
Example In addition to causing tragedy for others, Crane’s characters
who are motivated by a desire to appear heroic to their peers
may also cause themselves serious trouble. For example,
Collins, another Civil War private, almost causes his own
death because of his vain desire to act bravely in front of his
fellow soldiers. (Hall 16)
4.If you are citing more than one work by the same author, include a short
title in the parentheses.
Example Within 50 years, the Inca and Aztec civilizations were defeated and
overthrown by outside invaders (Thomas, Lost Cultures198).
5.If you are citing a work by two or three authors, use all last names and
the page number.Click here for more on this paper.......
Examples Prisons today are overcrowded to the point of emergency; conditions could not be worse, and the state budget for prison reforms
is at an all-time low (Smith and Jones 72).
Human infants grow quickly, with most babies doubling their birth
weight in the first six months of life and tripling their weight by
their first birthday (Pantell, Fries, and Vickery 52).
6.For more than three authors, use all the last names or use the last name
of the first author plus et al.(Latin for “and others”) and the page number.
There is no comma after the author’s name.
Example Casualties of World War II during 1940–45 amounted to more than
twenty-five million soldiers and civilians (Blum et al. 779).
7.If you cite a work that has no named author, use the work’s title and the
page number.
Example Each year 350,000 Americans will die of a heart attack before
reaching a hospital (“First Aid for Heart Attacks” 88).
396 PART THREE -SPECIAL ASSIGNMENTS
8.If the work you are citing appears in a series, include the volume and
page number with the author’s name.
Example The most common view camera format is 4″ by 5″, though many
sizes are available on today’s market (Pursell 1:29).
9. If the material you are citing comes from an electronic source that has
no page numbers, use the author’s last name in the text, if possible. If the author’s name is unavailable, use a short reference to the work’s title.
Example According to CSU professor Robert Thompson, the Chinese in Indonesia account for only 4% of the population but control 70% of
the economy.
Note: Some instructors may ask you to include the paragraph number, the
screen number, or the page number of the reference within the electronic
source’s total number of pages, especially if the document is lengthy. The example that follows shows how a reader could quickly find the information in
the sixth paragraph instead of searching through the entire document.
Example The Chinese in Indonesia account for only 4% of the population but
control 70% of the economy (Thompson par. 6).
10.If the material you are citing contains a passage quoted from another
source, indicate the use of the quotation in the parentheses.
Example According to George Orwell, “Good writing is like a window-pane”
(qtd. in Murray 142).Click here for more on this paper.......
Compiling a Works Cited List: MLA Style
If you are using the MLA format, at the end of your essay you should include a Works Cited page—a formal listing of the sources you used in your
essay. ( If you wish to show all the sources you consulted, but did not cite,
add a Works Consultedpage.) Arrange the entries alphabetically by the authors’ last names; if no name is given, arrange your sources by the first important word of the title. Double-space each entry, and double-space after
each one. If an entry takes more than one line, indent the subsequent lines
one-half inch (five spaces). Current MLA guidelines indicate one space following punctuation marks. (Some instructors still prefer two spaces, however, so you might check with your teacher on this issue.) See the sample
entries that follow.
Sample Entries: MLA Style
Here are some sample entries to help you prepare a Works Cited page according to the MLA guidelines. Please note that MLA style recommends
CHAPTER 14 -WRITING A PAPER USING RESEARCH 397
shortened forms of publishers’ names: Holt for Holt, Rinehart & Winston; Harcourt for Harcourt Brace College Publishers; UP for University Press; and so
forth. Also, omit business descriptions, such as Inc., Co., Press, or House.
Remember, too, when you type your paper, the titles of books and journals should be underlined even though you may see them printed in books or
magazines in italics. The titles of articles, essays, and chapters should be enclosed in quotation marks. All important words in titles are capitalized.
Books
• Book with one author
Keillor, Garrison. WLT: A Radio Romance. New York: Viking, 1991.
• Two books by the same author
Keillor, Garrison. Leaving Home. New York: Viking, 1987.
---. WLT: A Radio Romance. New York: Viking, 1991.
• Book with two or three authors
Pizzo, Stephen, and Paul Muolo. Profiting from the Bank and Savings and
Loan Crisis. New York: Harper, 1993.
• Book with more than three authors
You may use et al.for the other names or you may give all names in full in the
order they appear on the book’s title page.
Guerin, Wilfred L., et al. A Handbook of Critical Approaches to Literature.
New York: Harper, 1979.
• Book with author and editor
Chaucer, Geoffrey. The Tales of Canterbury. Ed. Robert Pratt. Boston:
Houghton, 1974.
• Book with corporate authorship
United States Council on Fire Prevention. Stopping Arson before It Starts.
Washington: Edmondson, 1992.
• Book with an editor
Knappman, Edward W., ed. Great American Trials: From Salem Witchcraft
to Rodney King. Detroit: Visible Ink, 1994.
• Selection or chapter from an anthology or a collection with an editor
Chopin, Kate. “La Belle Zoraide.” Classic American Women Writers. Ed.
Cynthia Griffin Wolff. New York: Harper, 1980. 250–73.
398 PART THREE -SPECIAL ASSIGNMENTS
• Work in more than one volume
If the volumes were published over a period of years, give the inclusive dates
at the end of the citation.
Piepkorn, Arthur C. Profiles in Belief: The Religious Bodies of the United
States and Canada. 2 vols. New York: Harper, 1976–78.
• Work in a series
Berg, Barbara L. The Remembered Gate: Origins of American Feminism.
Urban Life in America Series. New York: Oxford UP, 1978.
• Translation
Radzinsky, Edvard. The Last Czar: The Life and Death of Nicholas II. Trans.
Marian Schwartz. New York: Doubleday, 1992.
• ReprintClick here for more on this paper.......
Click here to have a similar A+ quality paper done for you by one of our writers within the set deadline at a discounted..Note that this citation presents two dates: the date of original publication
(1873) and the date of the reprinted work (1978).
Thaxter, Celia. Among the Isles of Shoals. 1873. Hampton, NH: Heritage,
1978.
• An Introduction, Preface, Foreword, or Afterword
Begin the citation with the name of the writer of the section you are citing;
then identify the section but do not underline or use quotation marks around
the word. Next, give the name of the book and the name of its author, preceded
by the word “By,” as shown below.
Soloman, Barbara H. Introduction. Herland. By Charlotte Perkins Gilman.
New York: Penguin, 1992. xi-xxxi.
Periodicals (Magazines, Journals, Newspapers)
• Signed article in magazine
Kaminer, Wendy. “Feminism’s Identity Crisis.” The AtlanticOct. 1993:
51–68.
• Unsigned article in magazine
“A Path Paved with Palms.” Southern LivingFeb. 1994: 4–6.
• Signed article in a journal
Lockwood, Thomas. “Divided Attention in Persuasion.” NineteenthCentury Fiction33 (1978): 309–23.
CHAPTER 14 -WRITING A PAPER USING RESEARCH 399
• A review
Spudis, Paul. Rev. of To a Rocky Moon: A Geologist’s History of Lunar
Exploration, by Don E. Wilhelms. Natural HistoryJan. 1994: 66–69.
• Signed article in newspaper
Friedman, Thomas. “World Answer to Jobs: Schooling.” Denver Post16
Mar. 1994: 9A.
• Unsigned article in newspaper
“Blackhawks Shut Down Gretsky, Kings, 4–0.” Washington Post11 Mar.
1994: C4.
• Unsigned editorial in newspaper
“Give Life after Death.” Editorial. Coloradoan[Ft. Collins, CO] 23 Dec.
1995: A4.
If the newspaper’s city of publication is not clear from the title, put the location in brackets following the paper’s name, as shown in the preceding entry.
• A letter to the newspaper
Byrd, Charles. Letter. Denver Post10 Sept. 2000: B10.
Encyclopedias, Pamphlets, Dissertations
Use full publication information for reference works, such as encyclopedias
and dictionaries, unless they are familiar and often revised.
• Signed article in an encyclopedia (full reference)
Collins, Dean R. “Light Amplifier.” McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Science
and Technology. Ed. Justin Thyme. 3 Vols. Boston: McGraw-Hill, 1997.
• Unsigned article in a well-known encyclopedia
“Sailfish.” The Encyclopedia Britannica. 18th ed. 1998.
• A pamphlet
Young, Leslie. Baby Care Essentials for the New Mother. Austin: Hall, 1985.
• A government document
Department of Health. National Institute on Drug Abuse. Drug Abuse
Prevention. Washington: GPO, 1980.
400 PART THREE -SPECIAL ASSIGNMENTS
• Unpublished dissertations and theses
Harmon, Gail A. “Poor Writing Skills at the College Level: A Program for
Correction.” Diss. U of Colorado, 2001.
Films, Television, Radio, Performances, Recordings
•A film
Schindler’s List. Dir. Steven Spielberg. Perf. Liam Neeson and Ben Kingsley.
Universal, 1994.
If you are referring to the contribution of a particular individual, such as the director, writer, actor, or composer, begin with that person’s name:
Spielberg, Steven, dir. Schindler’s List. Perf. Liam Neeson and Ben Kingsley.
Universal, 1994.Click here for more on this paper.......
• A television or radio show
Innovation. WNET, Newark. 12 Oct. 1985.
If your reference is to a particular episode or person associated with the
show, cite that name first, before the show’s name:
“General Stonewall Jackson.” Civil War Journal. Arts and Entertainment
Network. 10 June 1992.
Moyers, Bill, writ. and narr. Bill Moyers’ Journal. PBS. WABC, Denver.
30 Sept. 1980.
• Performances (plays, concerts, ballets, operas)
Julius Caesar. By William Shakespeare. Perf. Royal Shakespeare Company.
Booth Theater, New York. 13 Oct. 1982.
If you are referring to the contribution of a particular person associated with
the performance, put that person’s name first:
Shao, En, cond. Colorado Symphony Orch. Concert. Boettcher Concert Hall,
Denver. 18 Mar. 1994.
• A recording
Marsalis, Wynton. “Oh, But on the Third Day.” Rec. 27–28 Oct. 1988. The
Majesty of the Blues. Columbia, 1989.
Letters, Lectures, and Speeches
•A letter
Steinbeck, John. Letter to Elizabeth R. Otis. 11 Nov. 1944. Steinbeck
Collection. Stanford U Lib., Stanford, CA.
CHAPTER 14 -WRITING A PAPER USING RESEARCH 401
• A lecture or speech
Give the speaker’s name and the title of the talk first, before the sponsoring organization (or occasion) and location. If there is no title, substitute the appropriate label, such as “lecture” or “speech.”
Dippity, Sarah N. “The Importance of Prewriting.” CLAS Convention.
Colorado Springs. 15 Feb. 2001.
Interviews
• A published interview
Cite the person interviewed first. Use the word “Interview” if the interview
has no title.
Mailer, Norman. “Dialogue with Mailer.” With Andrew Gordon. Berkeley
Times 15 Jan. 1969.
• A personal interviewClick here for more on this paper.......
Adkins, Camille. Personal interview. 11 Jan. 2001.
Payne, Linda. Telephone interview. 13 April 2001.
Electronic Sources: MLA Style
The purpose of citations for electronic sources is the same as that for
printed matter: identification of the source and the best way to locate it. All
citations basically name the author and the work and present publication information. Citations for various types of electronic sources, however, must
also include different kinds of additional information—such as network addresses—to help researchers locate the sources in the easiest way.
It’s important to remember, too, that forms of electronic sources continue
to change rapidly. As technology expands, new ways of documenting electronic sources are being created, but, as yet, there is no universally acknowledged citation standard. The problem is further complicated by the fact that
some sources will not supply all the information you might like to include in
your citation. In these cases, you simply have to do the best you can by citing
what is available.
The guidelines and sample entries that follow are designed merely as an
introduction to citing electronic sources according to MLA style. If you need
additional help citing other kinds of electronic sources, consult the most upto-the-minute documentation guide available, such as the current MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papersor the MLA Web site.
Before looking at the sample citations given here, you should be familiar
with the following information regarding dates, addresses, and reference
markers in online sources.
402 PART THREE -SPECIAL ASSIGNMENTS
Use of Multiple DatesBecause online sources may change or be revised,
a citation may contain more than one date. Your citation may present, for example, the original date of a document if it appeared previously in print form,
the date of its electronic publication, or the time of its “latest update.” Your
entry should also include a “date of access,” indicating the day you found the
particular source.
Use of Network AddressesThe MLA Handbookrecommends inclusion of
network addresses (URLs) in citations of online works. Enclose URLs in angle
brackets, and, if you must divide an address at the end of a line, break it only
after a slash mark. Do not use a hyphen at the break as this will distort the
address. URLs are often long and easy to misread, so take extra time to ensure
that you are copying them correctly.
Use of Reference MarkersUnfortunately, many online sources do not use
markers such as page or paragraph numbers. If such information is available
to you, include it in your citations by all means; if it does not exist, readers
must fend for themselves when accessing your sources. (Some readers might
locate particular information in a document by using the “Find” tool in their
computer program, but this option is not always available or useful.)Click here for more on this paper.......
Scholarly Projects or Information Databases
Entries may include the following information, if available:title of the project
or database, editor’s name, electronic publication information (including version number, date or latest update, name and place of sponsoring organization), date of access, and network address.
American Memory Project. 15 Nov. 2000. Lib. of Congress, Washington. 10
Jan. 2001 <http://rs6.loc.gov/amhome.html>.
Granger’s World of Poetry. 1999. Columbia UP. 10 Dec. 2000 <http://
www.grangers.org>.
Documents within a Scholarly Project or Database
Begin with the author’s name. If no author is given, begin with the title of the
document, followed by the publication information, the data of access, and the
URL for the specific work (not the project or database).
“The History of the Holidays.” 1998. History Channel Online. 23 Dec. 2000
<http://www.historychannel.com/holidays>.
To cite a source without a URL that you found through one of your library’s information subscription services, state the name of the database (underlined),
the name of the service, the name of the library, and the date of access.
CHAPTER 14 -WRITING A PAPER USING RESEARCH 403
Wheeler, Anne. “Negotiating Performance Metrics.” Financial World8
Mar. 2001: 28–30. ABI/INFORM Global. ProQuest. Front Range
Community College Lib., Fort Collins, CO. 11 Mar. 2001.
Articles in Online Periodicals (Magazines, Journals, Newspapers)
Begin with the author’s name; if no author is given, begin with the title of
the article. Continue with the name of the periodical (underlined), volume
and issue number (if given), date of publication, the number range or total
number of pages or paragraphs (if available), date of access, and network
address.
• Signed article in a magazine
Goodman, David. “Forced Labor.” Mother Jones InteractiveJan./Feb. 2001.
2 Jan. 2001 <http://www.motherjones.com/mother_jones/JFOL/
labor.html>.
• Unsigned article in a magazine
“School Violence.” U.S. News Online6 July 2000. 21 Nov. 2000 <http://
www.usnews.com/usnews/news/ctshoot.htm>.
• Article in a journal
Cummings, Robert. “Liberty and History in Jonson’s Invitation to Supper.”
Studies in English Literature40.1 (2000). 29 Dec. 2000 <http://
muse.jhu.edu/journals/studies_in_english_literature/vo4o/
40.1/cummings.html>.
• Article in a newspaper or on a newswire
Kitner, John. “Widespread Opposition to Mideast Plan on Both Sides.”
New York Times on the Web31 Dec. 2000. 1 Jan. 2001 <http://
www.nytimes.com/2000/12/31/world/31MIDE.html/>.
• An editorial
“Success at Last.” Editorial. Front Range Times: Electronic Edition18 Jan.
2001. 12 Feb. 2001 <http://www.frtimes.com/ed/2001/01/18/
p04.html>.
• A reviewClick here for more on this paper.......
Ebert, Roger. Rev. of What Women Want, dir. Nancy Meyers. Chicago SunTimes Online 15 Dec. 2000. 31 Dec. 2000 <http://www.suntimes.com/
output/ebert1/want15f.html>.
404 PART THREE -SPECIAL ASSIGNMENTS
Personal or Professional Web Sites
Begin with the name of the person who created the site, if appropriate. If no
name is given, begin with the title of the site (underlined) or a description,
such as “home page” (but do not underline or enclose a description in quotation marks). Continue with date of publication, the name of any organization
associated with the site, date of access, and address.
Doe, John. Home page. 22 April 2001 <http://
www.chass.ucolorado.co:7070/∼JD/>.
Department of English Home Page. May 1999. Colorado State U. 9 Jan.
2001 <http://colostate.edu/depts/English/english_ie4.htm>.
Note that in the first example, the words “home page” are used as a description of a personal Web site and are therefore notunderlined; in the second example, “Home Page” is part of the title and isunderlined.
Online Books
The texts of some books are now available online. If the book is part of, or
sponsored by, a scholarly project, include the name of the project (underlined) but give the URL of the book itself.
Baum, Frank L. Glinda of Oz. 1920. Project Gutenberg. June 1997
<ftp://sailor.gutenberg.org/pub/gutenberg/etext97/14w0310.txt>.
Publications on CD-ROM, Diskette, or Magnetic Tape
Nonperiodical electronic citations are similar to those for a print book, but
also include the medium of publication (CD-ROM, diskette, magnetic tape). If
you are citing a specific entry, article, essay, poem, or short story, enclose the
title in quotation marks.
“Acupuncture.” The Oxford English Dictionary. 2nd ed. CD-ROM. Oxford
UP, 1992.
A number of periodicals (journals, magazines, newspapers) and periodically
revised reference books are published in print and on CD-ROM as databases.
These citations may contain the following: author’s name (if given), title of the
work, publication information for the printed source, title of the database (underlined), publication medium (CD-ROM), name of the vendor (the supplier of
the information), and electronic publication date.
Jenkins, Robert N. “Czarist Artifacts Coming to the Heartland.” Denver
Post28 May 1995: T1. Denver Post NewsBank. CD-ROM. NewsBank.
Dec. 1995.
CHAPTER 14 -WRITING A PAPER USING RESEARCH 405
E-Mail Communications
Begin with the name of the writer of the message, followed by a title taken
from the subject line (if given), type of communication and its recipient, and
date of the message.
Clinton, Hillary. “Election News.” E-mail to Jean Wyrick. 31 Oct. 2000.
APA Style
The American Psychological Association (APA) recommends a documentation style for research papers in the social sciences.* Your instructors in
psychology and sociology classes, for example, may prefer that you use the
APA form when you write essays for them.Click here for more on this paper.......
The APA style is similar to the MLA style in that it calls for parenthetical
documentation within the essay itself, although the information cited in the
parentheses differs slightly from that presented according to the MLA format.
For example, you will note that in the APA style the date of publication follows
the author’s last name and precedes the page number in the parentheses. Another important difference concerns capitalization of book and article titles:
in the MLA style, all important words are capitalized, but in the APA style,
only proper names, the first word of titles, and any words appearing after a
colon are capitalized. Instead of a Works Cited page, the APA style uses a References page at the end of the essay to list those sources cited in the text. A
Bibliography page lists all works that were consulted.
APA Citations in Your Essay
Here are some guidelines for using the APA parenthetical form within
your paper:
1.If you use a print source by one author, place the author’s name, the
date of publication, and the page number in parentheses right after the
quoted, paraphrased, or summarized material. Note that in APA style, you use
commas between the items in the parentheses, and you do include the “p.” abbreviation for page (these are omitted in MLA style). The entire reference
goes before the end punctuation of your sentence.
Example One crucial step in developing a so-called “deviant” personality
may, in fact, be the experience of being caught in some act and consequently being publicly labeled as a deviant (Becker, 1983, p. 31).
* If you wish a more detailed description of the APA style, you might order a copy of the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association,4th ed. ( Washington, DC: Psychological Association, 1994). The most up-to-date documentation forms may be found on the APA
Web site<http://www.apa.org/journals/webref.html>.
406 PART THREE -SPECIAL ASSIGNMENTS
2.If you use a print source by one author and give credit to that author by
name within your paper, you need give only the date and the page number.
Note that the publication date follows directly after the name of the author.
Example According to Green (1994), gang members from upper-class families are rarely convicted for their crimes and almost never labeled
as delinquent (p. 101).Click here for more on this paper.......
3.If you are citing a work with more than two authors, but fewer than six,
list all last names in the first reference; in subsequent references, use only the
first author’s last name and et al.(which means “and others”). For six or more
authors, use only the last name of the first author followed by et al.for all citations, including the first.
Example First reference:After divorce, men’s standard of living generally
rises some 75% whereas women’s falls to approximately 35% of
what it once was (Bird, Gordon, & Smith, 1992, p. 203).
Subsequent references:Almost half of all the poor households in
America today are headed by single women, most of whom are supporting a number of children (Bird et al., 1992, p. 285).
4.If you cite a work that has a corporate author, cite the group responsible for producing the work.
Example In contrast, the State Highway Research Commission (1989) argues,
“The return to the sixty-five-mile-an-hour speed limit on some of
our state’s highways has resulted in an increase in traffic fatalities” (p. 3).
Compiling a Reference List: APA Style
If you are using the APA style, at the end of your essay you should include a
page labeled References—a formal listing of the sources you cited in your essay.
Arrange the entries alphabetically by the authors’ last names; use initials for
the authors’ first and middle names. If there are two or more works by one author, list them chronologically, beginning with the earliest publication date. If
an author published two or more works in the same year, the first reference is
designated a,the second b,and so on (Feinstein 1989a; Feinstein 1989b).
Remember that in APA style, you underline books, journals, volume numbers, and their associated punctuation, but you do not put the names of articles in quotation marks. Although you do capitalize the major words in the
titles of magazines, newspapers, and journals, you do not capitalize any
words in the titles of books or articles except the first word in each title, the
first word following a colon, and all proper names.
Because some word-processing programs do not allow a hanging indention
in reference list citations (in which every line except the first line is indented),
CHAPTER 14 -WRITING A PAPER USING RESEARCH 407
APA is now willing to accept manuscripts showing citations with regular paragraph indention (in which only the first line is indented). If your manuscript
were to be published in an APA journal, however, the entries would be reset in
hanging indention style. Consult your instructors for the style they prefer for
each particular assignment, and always maintain consistency in each reference list.
The following examples are presented in paragraph indention format.
Sample Entries: APA Style
Books
• Book with one author
Gould, S. J. (1985). The flamingo’s smile. New York: W. W. Norton and
Co.
• Book with two or more authors
Forst, M. L. & Blomquist, M. (1991). Missing children: Rhetoric and
reality. New York: Lexington Books.
• Books by one author published in the same year
Hall, S. L. (1980a). Attention deficit disorder. Denver: Bald Mountain
Press.
Hall, S. L. (1980b). Taming your adolescent. Detroit: Morrison Books.
• Book with an editor
Banks, A. S. (Ed.). (1988). Political handbook of the world.
Binghamton, NY: CSA Publications.
• Selection or chapter from collection with an editor
Newcomb, T. M. (1958). Attitude development as a function of
reference groups: The Bennington study. In E. Maccoby, T. M. Newcomb, &
E. L. Hartley (Eds.), Readings in social psychology(pp. 10–12). New York:
Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
• A book with a corporate author
Population Reference Bureau. (1985). 1985 world population data.
Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
Articles (In Print)
Use p. or pp. with page numbers in newspapers but not in magazines or
journals.
408 PART THREE -SPECIAL ASSIGNMENTS
• An article in a magazine
Langer, E. T. (1989, May). The mindset of health. Psychology Today,
1138–1241.
• An article in a journal
Note that when a volume number appears, it is also underlined, as is all associated punctuation.
Nyden, P. W. (1985). Democratizing organizations: A case study of a
union reform movement. American Journal of Sociology, 90, 1119–1203.
• An article in a newspaper
Noble, K. B. (1986, September 1). For ex-Hormel workers, no forgive
and forget. New York Times, p. A5.
Interviews
• A published interview
Backus, R. (1985). [Interview with Lorena Smith.] In Frank Reagon
(Ed.), Today’s sociology studies(pp. 32–45). Washington, DC: Scientific
Library.Click here for more on this paper.......
• An unpublished interview
O’Connor, L. (2001, Feb. 15). [Personal interview].
Electronic Sources: APA Style
APA’s recommendations for citing electronic sources have changed since
the most recent edition of the Publication Manual was printed. The following
brief guidelines are suggested in an American Psychological Association Web
site (see the last sample entry in this section for a complete citation, including
the URL).*
Articles from Electronic Databases
In place of the previously recommended “Available: File: Item” statement,
APA now recommends a statement identifying the date of retrieval (omit for
CD-ROM) and the source (e.g., Electric Library), followed in parentheses by the
name of the database and any additional information that helps locate the material. For Web sources, a URL should cite the “entry page” for the database.
Levy, R. P. (1993, March). Limitations of micro-management theory in
small businesses. Small Business Quarterly, 9 (21), pp. 23+. Retrieved
* APA reference entries for electronic sources as shown on the APA Web site do not end with a
period.
CHAPTER 14 -WRITING A PAPER USING RESEARCH 409
April 13, 1999, from DIALOG online database (#84, IAC Business A.R.T.S.,
Item 03882176)
Internal Revenue Service. (1998, May). Deductions for Charities and
Nonprofit Organizations. Retrieved from SIRS database (SIRS Government
Reporter, CD-ROM, Spring 1998 release)
Miller, B. C. (1994, June 6). Post-polio syndrome in mountain
communities. The Journal of Modern Medicine, 86,1299-1302. Retrieved
April 1995, from DIALOG database (#321, Modern Medicine) on the World
Wide Web: http//:www.dialogweb.com
Documents from Web Sites
• Article from a journal
Integrating aging into introductory psychology. (1999, August).
APA Monitor, 29 (8). Retrieved January 3, 2001, from the World Wide Web:
http://www.apa.org/monitor/Aug98/aging.html
• An independent document
Electronic reference formats recommended by the American
Psychological Association. (2000, August 22). Washington, DC: American
Psychological Association. Retrieved December 31, 2000, from the World
Wide Web: http://www.apa.org/journals/webref.html
For the latest information on APA reference entries for electronic sources,
consult the Web site listed above.
Footnote/Bibliography Form
Most research papers today use a parenthetical documentation style, as
illustrated in the MLA and APA sections of this chapter. However, in the event
you face a writing situation that calls for use of traditional footnotes and bibliography page, here is a brief description of that format. This section will also
help you understand the citation system of older documents you may be reading, especially those using Latin abbreviations.
If you are writing a paper using this format, each idea you borrow and
each quotation you include must be attributed to its author(s) in a footnote
that appears at the bottom of the appropriate page.* Number your footnotes
consecutively throughout the essay (do not start over with “1” on each new
page), and place the number in the text to the right of and slightly above the
* Some documents use endnotes that appear in a list on a page immediately following the end
of the essay, before the Bibliography page.
410 PART THREE -SPECIAL ASSIGNMENTS
end of the passage, whether it is a direct quotation, a paraphrase, or a summary. Place the corresponding number, indented (five spaces) and slightly
raised, before the footnote at the bottom of the page. Double-space each
entry, and double-space after each footnote if more than one appears on the
same page. Once you have provided a first full reference, subsequent footnotes for that source may include only the author’s last name and page number. (See examples below.)
You may notice the use of Latin abbreviations in the notes of some documents, such as ibid.(“in the same place”) and op. cit.(“in the work cited”). In
such documents, ibid.follows a footnote as a substitute for the author’s name,
title, and publication information; there will be a new page number only if the
reference differs from the one in the previous footnote. Writers use op. cit.
with the author’s name to substitute for the title in later references.
Sources are listed by author in alphabetical order (or by title if no author
exists) on a Bibliography page at the end of the document.
First footnote reference
5
Garrison Keillor, Leaving Home(New York:
Viking, 1987) 23.
Next footnote 6
Keillor 79.
Later reference
12
Keillor 135.
Bibliographical entry Keillor, Garrison. Leaving Home. New York:
Viking Penguin, Inc., 1987.
USING SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
Sometimes when writers of research papers wish to give their readers additional information about their topic or about a particular piece of source material, they include supplementar y notes. If you are using the MLA or APA
format, these notes should be indicated by using a raised number in your text
(The study seemed incomplete at the time of its publication.
2
); the explanations appear on a page called “Notes” (MLA) or “Footnotes” (APA) that immediately follows the end of your essay. If you are using traditional footnote
form, simply include the supplementary notes in your list of footnotes at the
bottom of the page or in the list of endnotes following your essay’s conclusion.
Supplementary notes can offer a wide variety of additional information.
ExamplesClick here for more on this paper.......
1
For a different interpretation of this imagery, see Spiller 1021–1023.
2
Simon and Brown have also contributed to this area of
investigation. For a description of their results, see Report on the Star
Wars Project, 98–102.
CHAPTER 14 -WRITING A PAPER USING RESEARCH 411
3
It is important to note here that Brown’s study followed Smith’s by
at least six months.
4
Later in his report Carducci himself contradicts his earlier evaluation
by saying, “Our experiment was contaminated from the beginning” (319).
Don’t overdo supplementary notes; use them only when you think the additional information would be truly valuable to your readers. Obviously, information critical to your essay’s points should go in the appropriate body
paragraphs. (See page 418 for additional examples.)
SAMPLE STUDENT PAPER USING MLA STYLE
Here is the result of Amy Lawrence’s research into the recent forensic and historical discoveries concerning the 1918 Romanov assassination. As you read
her essay, ask yourself how effectively she uses research material to explain
and support her view of the controversy surrounding the assassination and
possible escape. Do you find her essay informative? Interesting? Convincing?
Point out major strengths and weaknesses that you see. Does her method of
structuring her essay—the step-by-step revelation of the new “clues”—add to
the sense of mystery?
Remember that the paragraphs in Amy’s essay have been numbered for
easy reference during class discussion. Do notnumber the paragraphs in your
own essay.
412 PART THREE -SPECIAL ASSIGNMENTS
Lawrence 1
Amy Lawrence
Professor Adams
English 1012
13 March 2001
A Possibility of Survival:
The Mysterious Fate of Anastasia and Alexei
1 The mystery has raged for over eighty years.
According to the history books, in 1918 Bolshevik
revolutionaries brutally executed all seven members of
the Russian royal family, the Romanovs. Immediately
following the murders, however, rumors appeared
claiming that one, or perhaps two, of the Romanov
children had escaped the assassination. Is there any
evidence to support even the possibility that seventeenyear-old Anastasia and/or thirteen-year-old Alexei were
somehow secreted away from the murder scene? Or is
this merely a romantic story that has been repeated
generation after generation?Click here for more on this paper.......
2 Over the years, many people have come forth to
claim their identities as either Anastasia or Alexei. Movies,
plays, and even a ballet have repeatedly captured the
public’s fascination with this story that just won’t die.
1
Until recently, many dismissed the story entirely as pure
fiction. However, political changes in the Soviet Union
during the last decade have produced a government that
is more open to research into the haunting Romanov
mystery. Today, historical information and improved
forensic research have provided exciting evidence that
points to a new conclusion based on facts, not rumors. It is
indeed possible that Anastasia and Alexei survived the
execution designed to end the Romanov dynasty forever.
Introduction:
History of the
controversy and
the research
questions
Thesis
↑1
⁄2″
↓
↑1″
↓
↑ 1″
↓
↔1″ ↔1″
Indent
1
⁄2″or 5
spaces
}
Double-space
}
}
→
CHAPTER 14 -WRITING A PAPER USING RESEARCH 413
Lawrence 2
3 The first break in solving the mystery came in 1989
when the Russian government released important
information about the Romanovs’ mass grave. Although
the rumors had always insisted that discovery of the
secret grave would confirm that two Romanovs had
escaped, the location of the grave had never been
revealed. In 1976 a Soviet writer claimed that he had
uncovered the common grave in woods near the murder
site, but its location was kept secret by the Communist
government (Kurth 100). The 1989 revelation of this
grave site was important to Romanov scholars because it
did support the often-retold escape stories: although
elevenpeople were reported executed (seven Romanov
family members and four attendants), only ninebodies
were found in the grave (Massie 43). But was this really
the Romanov grave?
4 The next important historical information came in
1992 from Edvard Radzinsky, a Russian playwright whose
research on the Romanovs could now be published.
Radzinsky had spent two decades studying the Central
State Archives in Moscow, discovering the unread diaries
of the murdered Czar Nicholas II and Czarina Alexandra
and, even more important, the previously secret
“Yurovsky note.” Yakov Yurovsky was the leader of the
execution squad and his statement contained not only his
description of the horrible night but also testimony from
other guards at the scene (Radzinsky 373). The “Yurovsky
note” clearly emphasized the chaos of the execution and
contributed to the possible explanation surrounding the
persistent rumors of two survivals.
Release of
evidence: The
grave site
More historical
information
uncovered:
The “Yurovsky
note”
414 PART THREE -SPECIAL ASSIGNMENTS
Lawrence 3Click here for more on this paper.......
5 According to Yurovsky, in the early hours of July 17,
1918, the Romanov family--the Czar, the Czarina, four
daughters, and son--were taken with their personal
physician and three servants into the cellar in the
house where they had been held prisoners by the
revolutionaries.
2
During the executions, the room filled
with smoke and noise, and the bullets seemed to be oddly
ricocheting, “jumping around the room like hail” (quoted
in Radzinsky 389). Although many bullets were fired at
close range, Yurovsky mentions that the deaths of all five
children were strangely hard to accomplish. Finally, as the
guards hurriedly prepared to load the bodies onto a
waiting truck, one of the guards heard a daughter cry out
and then it was discovered that, amazingly, all the
daughters were still alive (391). Click here for more on this paper.......
Click here to have a similar A+ quality paper done for you by one of our writers within the set deadline at a discounted..The daughters were then
supposedly murdered by a drunken guard with a bayonet,
who again experienced difficulty: “the point would not go
through [the] corset” (qtd. in Radzinsky 391).
6 What the guards did NOT know until much later (at
the grave site) was that at least three of the daughters,
and possibly all the children, were wearing “corsets made
of a solid mass of diamonds” (Radzinsky 373). The hidden
Romanov jewels had acted like bullet-proof vests and
were the reason the bullets and bayonet were deflected
(373). Radzinsky argues that the chaos of the dark night,
the drunken state of nervous, hurried guards, and the
protective corsets cast serious doubt on the success of all
the murder attempts (392).
7 The trip to the grave site was not smooth either. The
truck broke down twice, and it was hard to move the
bodies from the truck through the woods to the actual
CHAPTER 14 -WRITING A PAPER USING RESEARCH 415
Lawrence 4
grave site. Yurovsky wrote that to lighten the load two
bodies were cremated, supposedly the Czarina and her
son, but he also claims that by mistake the family maid
was confused with Czarina Alexandra (Radzinsky 410).
Although the cremation story would account for the two
bodies missing in the common grave, no remains or sign
of a cremation site have ever been found. Consequently,
many Romanov researchers have another explanation.
They argue that the two youngest Romanovs, wounded
but still alive thanks to their protective corsets of jewels,
were secretly removed from the truck during a breakdown by guards who regretted their part in the killing ofClick here for more on this paper.......
the Romanov children (Smith 5D). After all, why stop to
burn only two bodies? Why just two and not all?
Wouldn’t such a cremation have taken valuable time and
attracted attention? Why choose the boy and not
Nicholas, the hated Czar? Could Yurovsky have been
covering up the fact that by the time they reached the
grave site two bodies were missing--the boy and a female
(Radzinsky 416)?
8 Although the newly recovered historical evidence
added important pieces, it did not solve the puzzle.
However, forensic research, using techniques not
available until 1993, began to shed light on the decadesold controversy. An international team of geneticists
conducted DNA analysis on the nine recovered skeletons.
Through mitochondrial-DNA sequencing, a process that
analyzes DNA strains, and comparison to DNA samples
donated by living relatives of the Romanovs, the team
concluded in July 1993 that the skeletons were indeed
the remains of five members of the Romanov family and
New forensic
research:
1. DNA
analysis
416 PART THREE -SPECIAL ASSIGNMENTS
Lawrence 5Click here for more on this paper.......
four members of their household staff (Dricks A1).
Yurovsky’s story about the cremation of the maid was
therefore not true--two Romanovswere missing!
9 Taking the next step, scientists used computer
modeling to superimpose facial photographs onto the skulls
to determine structural matches that would tell which
family members the skeletons actually were. The computer
technology and dental work positively identified the Czar
and Czarina as two of the bodies. Then more news: all of
the remaining Romanov skeletons were of young females
(Elliot 61). Alexei, the heir to the throne, was one of the
missing--just as the rumors have always claimed.
10 To discover if the missing daughter was in fact
Anastasia, the scientists compared the size and age of
the girls to the skeletons. More controversy erupted.
Although some Russian scientists argued that the missing
skeleton was that of daughter Marie, Dr. William Maples,
head of the American forensics team, strongly disagreed.
According to Dr. Maples, all the skeletons were too tall
and too developed to be Anastasia: “The bones we have
show completed growth which indicated more mature
individuals” (qtd. in Toufexis 65). Dr. Peter Gill, head of
the British Forensic Science Service that also studied
the bones, agreed (O’Sullivan 6). According to these
respected scientists, Anastasia was definitely not in the
grave.Click here for more on this paper.......
11 Six more years of sophisticated scientific experiments
followed these initial studies; DNA tests were replicated
and results confirmed (Little). Finally, in February 1998, a
special federal commission chaired by First Deputy Prime
Minister Boris Nemtsov officially announced its findings
2. ComputerClick here for more on this paper.......
modeling
More tests lead
to official
announcement
3. Skeletal
measurements
CHAPTER 14 -WRITING A PAPER USING RESEARCH 417
Lawrence 6
to Russian President Boris Yeltsin and the world: the
bones were, beyond a shadow of scientific doubt, those
of the Romanovs--but that the bodies of Alexei and one
sister (Anastasia?) remained unaccounted for (Varoli).
3
12 Throughout the years, stories speculating on the
Romanov assassination have always focused on the
survival of the beautiful Anastasia and her sickly brother,
Alexei, often describing a devoted guard smuggling them
out through dark woods or secret passages. Doubters
have always said that the stories were folktales not worth
serious investigation. American and British forensic
research, however, argues this much: the real fate of
Anastasia and Alexei is still unknown. Therefore, their
survival of the execution is still a possibility. Finally, after
the decades of rumors, there is a scientific basis for
continuing the search for the missing Romanovs.
Someday, the mystery of their fate will be solved and the
controversy will rest in peace.Click here for more on this paper.......
Conclusion:
The search
should
continue
418 PART THREE -SPECIAL ASSIGNMENTS
Lawrence 7
Notes
1
The most well-known story was told by Anna Anderson, a woman found in Berlin in 1920 who convinced
many people throughout the world that she was indeed
Anastasia. In 1956 her story was made into a popular
movie starring Ingrid Bergman (Smith 5D). The most recent treatment is the 1997 animated Fox film Anastasia, in
which the young girl is saved by a servant boy, loses her
memory, but is ultimately restored to her true identity
(Rhodes).Click here for more on this paper.......
2
The Russian revolutionaries wanted to be rid of Czar
Nicholas II and the entire Romanov family, which had ruled
Russia since 1613. The Bolsheviks had held the family captive,
charging Nicholas II with responsibility for Russia’s poverty
and social problems during World War I (“Romanov”).
3
The bones were officially buried on July 17, 1998, in
the Peter and Paul Cathedral in St. Petersburg, resting
place of all the Romanov czars since Peter the Great. The
date marked the eightieth anniversary of the Romanov
execution (Caryl).
CHAPTER 14 -WRITING A PAPER USING RESEARCH 419
Lawrence 8
Works Cited
Caryl, Christian. “Russia Buries the Czar but Not Its
Squabbles.” U.S. News Online27 June 1998. 3 March
2001 <http://www.usnews.com/usnews/issue/980727/
27czar.htm>.Click here for more on this paper.......
Dricks, Victor. “Part of Royal Murder Mystery May Be Solved—
in Scottsdale.” Phoenix Gazette1 Oct. 1993: A1.
Elliott, Dorinda. “The Legacy of the Last Czar.” Newsweek
21 Sept. 1992: 60–61.
Kurth, Peter. “The Mystery of the Romanov Bones.”
Vanity FairJan. 1993: 96–103; 117–125.
Little, Alan. “Romanov Remains to Be Buried.” BBCNews
27 Jan. 1998. 15 Feb. 2001 <http://news.bbc.co.UK/
newsid 51000/51142.stm>.
Massie, Robert K. The Romanovs: The Final Chapter. New
York: Random, 1995.Click here for more on this paper.......
O’Sullivan, Dermot. “The Romanov Riddle: DNA Tests
Identify Bones of Czar and Family.” Chemical and
Engineering News71 (1993): 6–7.
Radzinsky, Edvard. The Last Czar: The Life and Death of
Nicholas II. Trans. Marian Schwartz. New York:
Doubleday, 1992.
Rhodes, Steve. Rev. of Anastasia, dir. Don Bluth. AllReviews.Com 1997. 28 Feb. 2001.<http://
www.all-reviews.com/videos/anastasia.htm>.
“Romanov.” Encarta. 1993 ed. CD-ROM. Redmond:
Microsoft, 1993.
Smith, Lucinda. “Was She Anastasia or a World-Class
Imposter?” The Denver Post 18 July 1993: 5D.
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Lawrence 9
Toufexis, Anastasia. “It’s the Czar All Right, But Where’s
Anastasia?” Time 14 Sept. 1992: 65.
Trimble, Jack. “Bones of Contention.” USNews and World
Report6 July 1992: 23.
Varoli, John. “Bury Tsar in St. Petersburg July 17.” St.
Petersburg Times 9–16 Feb. 1998. 26 Feb. 2001
<http://www.spb.ru/times/336-337/nemtsov.html>.
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